In this article, I critically examine Merge and the labeling algorithm (LA) standardly assumed in the mainstream minimalist program from a biolinguistic perspective within the framework of I-language, proposing function-based alternatives along the lines of Hoshi (2023, 2024a) with some substantive modifications. Theoretically, I argue that the so-called {XP, YP} problem regarding determination of labels is non-existent. Empirically, I demonstrate that the phenomena of scrambling, scope ambiguity, and (overt/covert) wh-movement discussed by Saito (2016, 2017) and Oku (2018, 2021) can be reinterpreted under this theoretical stance, without invoking the {XP, YP} problem, while discussing some consequences for externalization of the upper copy of an IMed element.
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